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Long before modern chemical engineering shaped today’s industries, 1,1-dichloroethane found its place among early industrial solvents and intermediates. Chemists first identified this chlorinated hydrocarbon in the mid-1800s as people experimented with new combinations of chlorine and hydrocarbons. Over the decades, this compound gained ground as factories searched for efficient, high-yield chlorination methods to produce vinyl chloride and other polyvinyl products. There’s a genuine connection between the rise in demand for plastics and the steady production of 1,1-dichloroethane. Based on records tracked by chemical trade groups, steady domestic output grew through the 1960s and 1970s, paralleling broad industrial expansion in the United States and other developed regions.
1,1-Dichloroethane, a clear colorless liquid with a sharp, sweet odor, often appears in chemical supply catalogs under the formula C2H4Cl2. In practical terms, this compound steps up as a solvent, starting material, and sometimes an analytical calibrant for gas chromatography. Some call it ethylidene dichloride, others use the CAS number 75-34-3 when navigating databases. Large-scale chemical manufacturing really put this compound to work. Talking to engineers and technologists, I often hear about its role as a feedstock for the synthesis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane—a popular degreasing agent back in the twentieth century. Unlike its close cousin 1,2-dichloroethane, this isomer stands out for its specific reactivity and solvent profile, especially in chlorination and alkylation sequences.
This compound boils at 57°C and weighs in at a molecular mass of about 98.96 g/mol. Non-polar, not miscible with water, but mixing easily in most organic solvents, 1,1-dichloroethane finds itself suited for reactions and blends that need volatility and fast evaporation. Handling this chemical, you’ll notice its density—heavier than water at about 1.17 g/cm3. The vapor is heavier than air, which signals caution in poorly ventilated spaces. On the chemical side, 1,1-dichloroethane resists hydrolysis under ambient conditions, but can break down under UV light or in the presence of strong bases to form a range of chlorinated byproducts. Establishing long-term storage requires containers that resist internal pressure and corrosion since the vapors build up if temperatures climb.
Manufacturers set grades based on water content, purity, and trace contaminants, with top-quality batches exceeding 99.5% purity by gas chromatography. Labels from major chemical suppliers flag this as a flammable liquid (flash point below room temperature), with hazard symbols for acute toxicity and environmental concerns. Regulatory bodies like OSHA, REACH, and GHS provide harmonized signal words and standardized pictograms on every drum and container, making sure that those handling the chemical know what they’re dealing with at a glance. Safety datasheets include specific reference values for permissible exposure limits set by agencies like NIOSH and ACGIH. Technicians should carefully check expiry dates and lot numbers to meet quality assurance protocols, especially in pharmaceutical or analytical work.
Factories usually produce 1,1-dichloroethane by direct chlorination of ethylene. This reaction runs in the presence of iron or ferric chloride as a catalyst. Batch and continuous reactors both see action in modern plants. Chlorine and ethylene mix in the vapor phase, yielding 1,1-dichloroethane along with some 1,2-isomer and trace heavier fractions. Distillation, sometimes in multiple columns, separates out the desired product. Chemical engineers optimize temperature, pressure, and catalyst loadings to tilt reaction selectivity toward the 1,1-isomer. Some plants punch up efficiency with byproduct recovery systems, capturing unreacted ethylene or vent gases for recycling. These production lines pump out thousands of metric tons every year to feed downstream markets.
This molecule plays an active part in many organic syntheses. Halogenation, dehydrochlorination, and nucleophilic substitution hit the top of the list when modifying 1,1-dichloroethane. Dehydrochlorination with a strong base produces vinyl chloride, a key precursor for PVC. Botanists and agrochemical researchers sometimes target it for transformation into rare intermediates and specialty solvents. Under UV light or with strong oxidants, the molecule cracks into chlorinated acetaldehydes or chloroacetic acids. Skilled synthetic chemists look to its reactivity as a building block, especially for telescoping sequences in pilot plants. Handling it under dry, oxygen-free systems can boost selectivity and minimize unwanted side reactions, ensuring high-purity products for critical applications.
This substance goes by several names, depending on the context. “Ethylidene dichloride,” “EDC-1,1,” or “1,1-Ethylene dichloride” pop up frequently in supplier catalogs. Listings in regulatory databases often prefer “1,1-Dichloroethane” with the CAS registry number for unambiguous identification. Chemical indexes and old industrial manuals might list “Sym-dichloroethane” or simply “Dichloroethane,” so careful distinction from the 1,2-isomer becomes crucial in lab and factory settings. Synonyms get tossed around in patent filings, safety bulletins, and research papers, so anyone working with this compound should double-check specifications before placing an order or using archived reports.
Every time workers handle 1,1-dichloroethane, attention to safety procedures matters. The EPA and OSHA categorize this chemical as hazardous. Long-term exposure risks include nervous system effects, while acute incidents may cause dizziness, nausea, or respiratory distress. Providing effective local exhaust and vapor containment cuts risks in labs and manufacturing spaces. Spill kits tailored for chlorinated solvents, first-aid stations with eyewash, and personal protective equipment (like butyl rubber gloves and splash goggles) form the front line of defense. Emergency plans involving nearby fire services and chemical response teams improve preparation for leaks or accidental releases. Training drills with simulated incidents give everyone on-site the tools to act fast and reduce harm. In all my professional visits to facilities, the biggest difference comes from hands-on training, ready-to-use safety plans, and regular updates on chemical hazard bulletins.
Factories and analytical labs value 1,1-dichloroethane for its capacity to act as a solvent in waxes, resins, adhesives, and coatings. Each year, a big slice of global production goes into synthesizing 1,1,1-trichloroethane and vinyl chloride, underpinning plastics and specialty polymers. Soil and environmental researchers once used this compound in extractions and reference standards before regulation tightened due to health and contamination concerns. A few years back, I came across some major consumer product makers who experimented with new, less flammable solvent blends for degreasing and cleaning; many considered 1,1-dichloroethane until newer green chemistry pushed them in different directions. Technical teams in pharmaceutical labs sometimes use micro-amounts for analytical calibration or trace impurity benchmarking.
Every time a new green solvent proposal rolls out, researchers weigh benefits against established products like 1,1-dichloroethane. Modern R&D in both private industry and academia explores catalyst systems to boost isomer selectivity, maximize yield, and cut unwanted residues. Teams at major universities publish studies on advanced membrane separation and adsorptive purification techniques targeting chlorinated intermediates. Life-cycle analysis and process intensification have started to shift attention toward sustainable alternatives and capture technologies for vented chlorinated gases. Conference presentations highlight machine learning models for predicting product purity and tracing degradation under different storage conditions. Down the road, newer derivatives with tailored reactivity profiles still draw attention as replacements for older, less environmentally friendly solvents. Empirical testing and computational modeling increasingly inform regulatory acceptance and product development, so compliance and research move forward together.
Toxicological studies from agencies like the EPA and IARC show a complex picture. Lab animals exposed to high levels developed liver and kidney strain, and some studies suggest elevated cancer risk with chronic heavy exposure. In industrial history, poorly ventilated factories led to acute poisonings—workers suffered headaches, fatigue, and even liver dysfunction after breathing concentrated vapors. Medical journals track exposure symptoms and highlight the need for engineering controls and regular air monitoring. Ventilation, process isolation, and periodic biomonitoring remain critical for worker safety, especially in recycling and waste treatment plants. Today’s exposure guidelines generally fall below levels linked to toxic outcomes, but chemical hygiene officers must remain vigilant due to cumulative effects and sensitive populations. I’ve seen firsthand that even companies with the best intentions sometimes overlook full containment and leak detection—a mistake that can mean expensive site remediation and years of regulatory scrutiny.
The future for 1,1-dichloroethane hinges on how industries keep balancing utility versus environmental and health concerns. Growing pressure from green chemistry advocates and regulators continues to push for process modifications, emission reductions, and outright substitutions where possible. Research into drop-in alternatives and on-demand generation of reactive intermediates offers possible routes away from bulk storage and transportation hazards. Companies investing in recovery systems, solvent recycling, and zero-liquid-discharge setups see reduced liability and cost, even as early adopters wrangle up-front capital hurdles. In my experience, sustainable growth—especially in emerging economies—sometimes revives interest in chlorinated feedstocks when resource constraints tighten, so 1,1-dichloroethane may stick around longer where regulatory pressure and infrastructure gaps persist. Ongoing dialogue between industrial groups, regulators, scientists, and safety experts will shape whether this chemical continues as a workhorse or recedes into the history books of organic chemistry.
1,1-Dichloroethane doesn’t often make it into regular conversation, yet it plays a role in many products around us. This chemical turns up in factories and labs, usually tied to the plastics and adhesives we touch every day.
Most folks see plastics and think about grocery bags or food wrappers, but making things like vinyl coatings or certain adhesives relies on careful chemistry. Walk through a plastics plant and you’ll find 1,1-dichloroethane helping produce vinyl chloride. Vinyl chloride turns into PVC, the same stuff that coats wires, forms pipes, and lines floors in offices. Without chemicals like this, the supply chain for these everyday materials would slow to a crawl. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lists PVC as one of the biggest uses of the chemical in the country.
Making adhesives that hold tough—even in wet or flexible situations—also draws from 1,1-dichloroethane. The stickiness in some glues and sealants needs solvents for smooth application and strong drying power. This compound’s properties fit that bill for manufacturers hustling to meet product deadlines.
People working in research labs know solvent quality matters when cleaning sensitive equipment or prepping samples for analysis. Lab workers have reached for 1,1-dichloroethane to wash glassware and remove stubborn residues. In industry, degreasing metal parts before assembling machines calls for reliable solvents, and this chemical’s volatility gets jobs done quickly. It washes grime and oil away, helping assembly workers craft cleaner, longer-lasting equipment.
That factory smell is probably more than just “work in progress”—it could carry health worries. The CDC and World Health Organization both flag overexposure risks. Workers breathing the vapor might get headaches or dizziness; regular exposure builds bigger risks in the long run. As someone who’s worked near solvent tanks, it’s clear that personal protective gear and good airflow can’t be skipped, even on busy days.
While small amounts linger in air or water near industrial sites, nearby residents often feel uneasy. Public health data points to a link between long-term exposure and some cancers. Kids and older folks get affected even faster. Asking questions and checking local water reports can keep families better informed if plants operate nearby.
Companies started researching safer substitutes in response to environmental and worker safety pressure. Some businesses now use less toxic solvents or enclose processes so fumes stay contained. States such as California have stricter limits on how much escapes into the air or wastewater. Smart companies take these changes in stride, finding replacement chemicals that offer similar cleaning power without raising so many safety concerns.
Government agencies push for regular monitoring and tougher standards. Ordinary people can stay involved by reading up on local zoning, asking about chemical use at public meetings, or even teaming up with neighborhood groups focused on clean air and water. Tools for reporting issues exist—and sharing concerns with local representatives keeps the conversation going in the right direction.
People don’t talk much about 1,1-dichloroethane outside chemistry circles, yet it touches daily life more than most realize. This chemical pops up in industrial cleaning, making plastics, and even as a reported trace contaminant in some drinking water. Plenty of us trust that “if it’s allowed in the air or water, it must be safe,” but real experience teaches the world rarely works that way.
First thing to understand: 1,1-dichloroethane doesn’t show up in food unless there’s been a major spill or mishap, but the air and water near certain factories may carry traces. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lists it as a probable human carcinogen. Studies with rodents link long-term exposure to higher risks of liver and kidney damage, as well as the potential for some types of cancer. One troubling part is how easily this chemical evaporates, letting people breathe it in before they know it’s around. Short-term symptoms can be as mild as feeling lightheaded after handling products containing it, but long-term exposure may chip away at health far more quietly.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention share that inhaling or drinking small amounts doesn't always cause immediate illness—at least not symptoms that stand out. That doesn’t mean it’s harmless. Chronic exposure continues to worry health experts because the effects don’t always show up until much later. Over years, small doses add up. It reminds me how workers at manufacturing plants started complaining of headaches and nausea years before real investigations launched.
Growing up next to a plant that produced solvents, I watched neighbors worry over odd odors in the tap water. Folks shrugged concerns off until more families faced health problems. Later investigation pointed to a cluster of cases near the chemical storage area. Some people blame 1,1-dichloroethane for these illnesses; others say it was a mix of many chemicals. Either way, no one wants to wait decades to figure things out.
So why do we keep seeing 1,1-dichloroethane around when it’s tied to serious health issues? Industry often lags behind public health demands. Regulation slowly catches up, but loopholes and old infrastructures stick around. Some companies invest in closed systems, spill-proof containers, and regular worker training. Homeowners living near potential sources need honest reports and water testing. Everyone needs clean information about what flows from their pipes, not just dense chemical names buried in reports.
Ordinary folks rarely pick the chemicals used in their neighborhoods. What they can do is speak up at local meetings, push for better monitoring, and support environmental health groups. The best way to handle these risks is not to ignore them. With more people shining a light on overlooked hazards, real change gets a fighting chance. Letting health science take the lead, not just waiting for disaster, puts families and workers ahead of the curve.
Safety gear can feel like a hassle, but a small misstep with 1,1-dichloroethane turns ordinary work into an emergency. The liquid gives off vapors that both harm health and catch fire easily. On sites where solvents fill the air, even familiar old-timers sometimes forget what’s in the drum. I’ve seen beginners and seasoned staff both slip up by treating every clear liquid like ordinary alcohol or paint thinner. That attitude creates messes. A well-labeled drum in a ventilated area, kept far from ignition sources, helps stop trouble before it starts.
Solvent drums never belong near heat. Direct sunlight, steam lines, or electric motors crank up the temperature and push vapor pressure up. I've worked in buildings where open doors let sunlight hit barrels for an hour. At the next inspection, labels faded and lids bulged out. Coming in one day to a warped drum drove home how important it is to shield chemicals from sun and heat.
Only store containers in rooms designed for flammable chemicals—preferably locked, low-traffic spots with alerts for unauthorized entry. Metal shelving and acid-proof trays cut down spill risks. Ventilation isn't just a regulation—it lets you breathe easy, especially if the liquid leaks or workers spill during transfer. A fume hood gives workers a direct line against vapor buildup. Some old warehouses using only open windows created pockets of heavy air where smells linger and headaches build up during extended work.
Every worker should hold the right gloves in their hand before picking up a container. Nitrile or neoprene outlast plain latex, which can break down much faster than expected. A face shield, not just goggles, offers better protection for accidental splashes, especially as the chemical tends to run quickly down gloves if mishandled. I’ve heard stories of burns and rashes in workers who thought thin gloves were enough, then had to take days off for medical treatment.
Separate all cleanup tools—dedicated mops, rags, and absorbents—for hazardous materials only. Combining them with regular janitorial supplies mixes traces into the waste stream and causes disposal problems, or, worse, unsafe reactions. I’ve seen how a careless toss of solvent-soaked rags suddenly heats up a dumpster.
Real prevention builds on daily habits, not just rulebooks. Too often, staff treats “routine” chemical work as something simple or low-risk. Ongoing reminders in meetings, clear signage, and hands-on spill drills help. Peer check-ins, where coworkers keep each other honest, stop shortcuts before anything boils over—figuratively or literally.
Emergency plans save time and confusion. Showers and eyewash stations must be within easy reach, never hidden by stored boxes or blocked by delivery carts. I've seen accident scenes where quick access turned what could have been a catastrophe into a manageable situation. Fire extinguishers and spill kits, checked often, should line the walls, not sit forgotten in a far corner.
Committing to careful storage and handling means recognizing our responsibility to everyone on site. Whether in manufacturing, research, or waste disposal, everyone along the line benefits when we avoid shortcuts. By tightening habits today, workplaces prevent accidents tomorrow—and ensure coworkers go home as healthy as they arrived.
1,1-Dichloroethane looks harmless enough at first glance. It shows up as a clear, colorless liquid, and if you take a whiff—don’t do that without proper lab gear—you’ll catch a sweetish, slightly sharp odor. Not all chlorinated solvents stink to high heaven, but this one’s easy to spot in a storage cabinet. Its vapor carries that same chemical sweetness up to your nose. On a warm day, it’ll shift from liquid to vapor quickly. The boiling point sits right around 57 degrees Celsius, so a hot city afternoon is enough to transform spills into invisible risks.
Volatility really shapes how a liquid behaves in any work setting. 1,1-Dichloroethane evaporates fast. That’s convenient for cleaning, but it also means chemical engineers and lab workers have to bring their A-game with ventilation and storage. I recall working in a poorly ventilated university lab where a similar solvent made everyone groggy—ventilation turned out to be a lifesaver. This compound’s rapid evaporation comes straight out of its physical profile: low boiling point, and a vapor pressure of about 280 mm Hg at room temperature. Leave an open container unattended, you’ll lose most of it to the air.
Everyone who’s handled chemicals on the job knows that mixing matters. 1,1-Dichloroethane doesn’t get along well with water—it barely mixes. Only about 5 grams will dissolve in a full liter of water at room temperature. It behaves more like oil: forms layers, floats or sinks depending on what else you’ve got in the beaker. But put it with other organics—alcohols, ethers, acetone—and you won’t see any separation. The non-polar nature of its carbon-hydrogen backbone really drives that selective mixing. Many solvent spills in industry end up carrying chlorinated ethane into surface water, so treatment systems need to catch these low-solubility culprits before they hit the environment.
People sometimes ignore density until trouble starts. At about 1.16 grams per milliliter, 1,1-dichloroethane weighs down pipes and tanks more than water does. If it spills on soil, it won’t just run off—it’ll seep low, maybe even push past some groundwater. Viscosity lands in the “easy flowing” range, which is both blessing and curse. Easy-to-pour means less buildup inside equipment, but accidents spread farther if the liquid escapes. I remember one spill near a loading dock that traveled farther than expected because the chemical poured almost as thin as alcohol. In cleanup, you need a lot more absorbent material than with thicker solvents.
Low flash point, roughly -4 degrees Celsius, turns this solvent into a fire risk during storage or transport. Industry standards ask for grounded metal tanks, solid labeling, and proper vapor containment—steps that do more than just tick safety boxes. Standard flame arrestors and regular training for crews keep the small chance of disaster even smaller. Runoff control and absorbent barriers work well enough during spills, as long as operators stay on their toes from start to finish.
You can’t separate physical characteristics from daily decisions in the lab or the plant. Workers rely on flash points, boiling temperatures, and solubility numbers before a single barrel gets shipped. For 1,1-dichloroethane, these features spell out both its convenience as a solvent and its dangers. Well-designed safety measures—ventilation, proper storage, effective spill plans—spring straight from data supplied in basic chemical guides. Getting the details right means fewer surprises and a much safer workplace for anybody using or transporting it.
1,1-Dichloroethane often lands on the bench in chemical labs and manufacturing plants because it works well as a solvent and intermediate. Spend any time around it and stories add up fast—skin rashes after a glove rips, headaches from sloppy ventilation, even cleanup drills that turn into real scares. It's not a household chemical and never will be, for a reason. Health authorities like OSHA and the CDC flag this compound for good cause: it’s got toxicity you cannot afford to overlook.
This chemical enters the body by more routes than people realize—vapor in the air, splashes on the skin, or accidental spills. Its sweet smell sometimes gives a false sense of safety, but after a few hours it catches up, often with dizziness, nausea, or a nagging cough. There’s science behind this: inhaling or absorbing too much impacts the central nervous system and irritates the respiratory tract. Long-term studies link exposure to liver and kidney damage. Cancer risk pops up in agency reports too, which should have everyone double-checking their procedures.
I learned early on that short sleeves and open shoes do not belong in any room where this solvent lives. Chemical-resistant gloves—nitrile or butyl—make a massive difference. Full goggles keep splash away from your eyes, especially if you’re pouring or transferring the liquid. Lab coats should never stay on if they get spotted with this chemical; that fabric can slowly release vapors close to your skin. Beyond PPE, using a fume hood is absolutely worth the hassle. Standard fans just push fumes around, leading to hotspots and uneven coverage. Devices with proper airflow and filters designed for organochlorines cut levels down close to zero.
I once returned to a storeroom to find a cracked cap on a bottle of 1,1-dichloroethane. The smell hit hard, and that’s when storage rules clicked for me. Keep this solvent in airtight containers, in flameproof cabinets, away from heat or sparks. Label every bottle clearly. Mixing up bottles or leaving one unmarked puts more than the user at risk—maintenance staff, janitors, and even waste handlers can get exposed without warning. For disposal, I always call the professionals. Pouring it down the drain or tossing it in regular trash doesn't just break the law—it pollutes water and air and puts treatment workers in danger.
No safety manual covers every situation, and mistakes happen fast. I’ve seen a new lab member freeze up after a spill, unsure whether to evacuate or mop up. Proper training focuses on action steps: alert coworkers, ventilate, keep clear, suit up before cleaning, and know who to call. Eye wash stations and showers need to work and stay uncluttered, ready for actual emergencies. Drills should make these steps second nature.
Exposure limits come from harsh lessons and health studies—not guesswork. OSHA sets the limit at 100 ppm for an eight-hour shift, and monitoring helps stay well below this. If you use 1,1-dichloroethane in a place without regular air checks, you’re rolling the dice with everyone’s health. Data says cases of chemical burns and illness drop dramatically with strict controls, which speaks louder than any product manual.
I’ve watched teams turn complacency into serious harm; nobody thinks it’ll happen to them, until it does. Respect the hazards, gear up with proper PPE, follow proven storage and disposal practices, and listen to signs from your body—a cough, a headache, or a weird smell often signals it’s time to step back and rethink your routine. The safest operators don’t do anything fancy—they just never let their guard down.
| Names | |
| Preferred IUPAC name | 1,1-dichloroethane |
| Other names |
Ethylene dichloride EDC Sym-Dichloroethane Glycol dichloride 1,1-Dichloroethane |
| Pronunciation | /ˌwʌn.wʌn.daɪˌklɔːr.oʊˈɛθ.eɪn/ |
| Identifiers | |
| CAS Number | 75-34-3 |
| Beilstein Reference | 1730717 |
| ChEBI | CHEBI:35815 |
| ChEMBL | CHEMBL1357 |
| ChemSpider | 8003 |
| DrugBank | DB00245 |
| ECHA InfoCard | 03d91a7e-5825-4208-9538-8fdecab900c3 |
| EC Number | 200-838-9 |
| Gmelin Reference | 60753 |
| KEGG | C00283 |
| MeSH | D004047 |
| PubChem CID | 14218 |
| RTECS number | KI0525000 |
| UNII | 8EH9I85N27 |
| UN number | UN1184 |
| Properties | |
| Chemical formula | C2H4Cl2 |
| Molar mass | 98.96 g/mol |
| Appearance | Colorless liquid with a chloroform-like odor |
| Odor | sweet odor |
| Density | 1.18 g/mL at 25 °C |
| Solubility in water | 8.7 g/L |
| log P | 1.48 |
| Vapor pressure | Vapor pressure: 78 mmHg (at 20 °C) |
| Acidity (pKa) | 14.54 |
| Basicity (pKb) | -1.90 |
| Magnetic susceptibility (χ) | -46.7×10⁻⁶ cm³/mol |
| Refractive index (nD) | 1.444 |
| Viscosity | 0.43 mPa·s at 20°C |
| Dipole moment | 1.89 D |
| Thermochemistry | |
| Std molar entropy (S⦵298) | 167.0 J·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹ |
| Std enthalpy of formation (ΔfH⦵298) | -167.3 kJ/mol |
| Std enthalpy of combustion (ΔcH⦵298) | -683.8 kJ/mol |
| Pharmacology | |
| ATC code | V09AA05 |
| Hazards | |
| GHS labelling | **GHS02, GHS07, GHS08** |
| Pictograms | GHS02,GHS07 |
| Signal word | Warning |
| Hazard statements | H225, H319, H336, H351 |
| Precautionary statements | P201, P210, P233, P260, P264, P273, P280, P301+P310, P303+P361+P353, P304+P340, P305+P351+P338, P312, P321, P330, P337+P313, P363, P370+P378, P391, P403+P235, P405, P501 |
| Flash point | 6°C |
| Autoignition temperature | 413 °C |
| Explosive limits | Explosive limits: 5.6–14% |
| Lethal dose or concentration | Lethal dose or concentration: LD50 oral (rat) 850 mg/kg |
| LD50 (median dose) | LD50 (median dose) of 1,1-DICHLOROETHANE: "Draize test, rabbit, skin: 7.54 g/kg; Oral, mouse: 5700 mg/kg; Oral, rat: 968 mg/kg |
| NIOSH | NIOSH: JF4100000 |
| PEL (Permissible) | PEL: 100 ppm |
| REL (Recommended) | 10 ppm |
| IDLH (Immediate danger) | 1000 ppm |
| Related compounds | |
| Related compounds |
Ethylene dichloride Chloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane Vinyl chloride Ethylene Chloroform |
